Polymetallic nodules, which contain valuable minerals, are found in various regions of the deep seafloor.
Deep sea nodule minerals, which contain metals such as cobalt, nickel and copper, are being targeted for use in batteries and electronics. These minerals are believed to be essential for electric vehicles, renewable energy storage and electrical wiring.
In January 2025, the non-profit As You Sow announced a withdrawal agreement with First Solar to exclude minerals mined from the deep seabed.
The agreement represents a shift in the initiatives at one company in concert with other global brands and nations concerned about mining rare minerals from the deep seabed for production and supply chains.
Since 1992, As You Sow’s programs have focused on corporate shareholder advocacy that results in large-scale systemic change by fostering sustainable and equitable corporations.
The First Solar withdrawal is the first agreement reached between shareholders and a public company on controversial mining from the deep sea.
Deep sea mining
Deep-sea mining as a concept began in the late 1960s and 1970s when the potential of polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor was first recognized as a potential new source of minerals and could be used in electric vehicles, smartphones, laptops, etc.
The first exploration efforts started in the 1980s and 1990s when companies and governments began serious research and development into the feasibility of deep-sea mining.
The technology used for deep-sea mining involves specialized equipment designed to operate in extreme conditions, such as very high pressure, freezing temperatures and complete darkness.
Technologies to mine the deep sea include harvesters that crawl along the ocean floor and collect polymetallic nodules; vertical risers, which are long pipes that transport the nodules from the seafloor to mining vessels and surface support vessels; and ships that process and store the nodules.
In November 2022, the Metals Company carried out a test that extracted 3,000 tonnes of polymetallic nodules from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone. This year, the controversy around deep seabed minerals is expected to heat up with a pending decision by the UN’s International Seabed Authority. However, a scientific paper from 2023 found that material production needs to expand to meet future power generation material needs, but geologic reserves of materials are sufficient to meet all projected future demand without deep seabed mining.
Despite the list of 60 companies and 30 countries already agreeing to a moratorium, the deep seabed mining industry could get support from the Trump administration.
According to Cole Genge, director of programs of As You Sow, the emerging deep sea mining (DSM) industry embodies one of the most significant new threats to global biodiversity.
“As the green transition, including electric vehicle deployment, speeds up, companies like The Metals Company plan to strip-mine the seafloor for nodules containing battery-related minerals,” said Genge. “Supporters of DSM argue that mining deep sea nodules poses fewer risks to climate and biodiversity compared to terrestrial mining.”
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) regulates deep-sea mining in international waters. ISA has given permits to several companies and governments to explore and mine the deep sea, including The Metals Company, China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association; Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation; the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation; and government or state-controlled companies in France, India, and Poland.
Genge says companies like The Metals Company and Global Sea Mineral Resources have conducted test runs of these technologies to prove their feasibility. “However, the environmental risks associated with these methods, such as habitat destruction and sediment plumes, remain a major concern.”
Jonathan Rowntree, CEO of Niron Magnetics says mining for critical minerals is one of the biggest bottlenecks in the green energy transition.
“It’s expensive, slow, and comes with significant environmental costs,” said Rowntree. “Whether minerals are extracted from the ocean floor or land deposits, the process is disruptive, generates waste and raises sustainability concerns.”
“As demand for these materials continues to grow due to the world moving toward electrification and renewable energy, this might not be enough. That’s why the solution isn’t either/or—it’s all of the above,” he said.
Rare earth mineral circular economy
“As of now, deep-sea mining is still in the exploration and testing phase, with no commercial operations yet approved. The industry continues to evolve as technology advances and regulatory frameworks are developed,” said Genge.
But Genge says the debate over deep-sea mining is a very real issue that could shape the future of the devices we rely on every day.
“Deep-sea mining targets minerals like cobalt, nickel, and lithium—key components in smartphones, laptops and electric vehicles—but comes at a steep environmental cost,” he said.
Genge says the environmental cost of mining the ocean floor is that it risks destroying fragile ecosystems, reducing biodiversity and disrupting the ocean’s ability to store carbon and produce oxygen.
But he also says there is good news and a better way forward.
“By embracing a circular economy—recycling metals from old electronics and batteries—and supporting innovations like sodium-ion batteries, which use abundant sodium instead of scarce minerals, we can meet the demand for tech materials without harming the planet,” he said. “These solutions not only protect the oceans but also reduce carbon emissions and create sustainable jobs.”
Genge says that a circular economy approach focuses on recycling cobalt, nickel, and lithium from used batteries and electronics.
“Companies like Redwood Materials and Li-Cycle are already leading the way, recovering these valuable materials and keeping them in circulation,” said Genge. “This reduces the need for land-based mining and avoids opening another front for environmental destruction on the deep seabed—especially for materials that may not even be needed in the future.”
Alternative technologies and new advancements
Rowntree says that developing alternative technologies that reduce or eliminate reliance on these scarce materials is just as critical as securing new sources of supply.
“Instead of continuing the cycle of extracting harder-to-reach resources, we should also be building essential components using some of the most abundant materials on Earth,” he said. “That’s what we’re doing at Niron—developing high-performance, rare-earth-free permanent magnets through sustainable and scalable processes.”
Genge says that there are new advancements in sodium-ion battery technology, which uses abundant sodium (think salt) instead of scarce lithium, cobalt, and nickel. “This is making these batteries more efficient and cost-effective,” added Genge.
“Sodium-ion batteries can power electric vehicles, store renewable energy, and even replace lithium-ion batteries in some electronics,” said Genge. “This progress not only reduces the demand for land-mined minerals but also raises questions about the financial viability and environmental risks of deep-sea mining, which could have devastating long-term consequences.”
“Industries like electric vehicles, electronics, energy storage, and recycling would benefit greatly from this shift,” said Genge. “Improved recycling programs for batteries and e-waste would recover and reuse materials, while sodium-ion technology would lessen reliance on critical minerals.”
“This approach protects marine ecosystems from destructive mining, reduces carbon emissions, saves resources, and creates jobs in recycling and clean energy,” he said. “By embracing a circular economy and innovative technologies, we can meet the demand for critical minerals without harming the planet.
“Bringing it back to circularity, we believe that the circular economy is the answer to getting all the minerals we need in a way that is more efficient and less destructive,” added Genge.
